Hume vs Kant Causality Essay Example for Free

Hume vs Kant Causality Essay Humes ultimate goal in his philosophic endeavors was to undermine abstruse Philosophy. By focusing on the aspect of reason, Hume shows there are limitations to philosophy. Since he did not know the limits, he proposed to use reason to the best of his ability, but when he came to a boundary, that was the limit. He conjectured that we must study reason to find out what is beyond the capability of reason. Hume began his first examination if the mind by classifying its contents as Perceptions. Here therefore [he divided] all the perceptions of the mind into two classes or species. (27) First, Impressions represented an image of something that portrayed an immediate relationship. Secondly, there were thoughts and ideas, which constituted the less vivid impressions. For example, the recalling of a memory. From this distinction, Hume decreed that all ideas had origin within impressions. From the distinction of perceptions, Hume created his ? microscope in order to trace all ideas back to impressions. He did this to search for the limits. If an idea could not be traced back to its impression, it was too abstruse. Hume separated the objects of human reason into two categories. First, the relation of ideas, which represented all that is ? a priori. Secondly, he created the category of matters of fact. Matters of fact made up the ? a posteriori piece of the spectrum of reason. Matters of fact are contingent, meaning they could be otherwise. In order to go beyond the objects of human reason, Hume proposed that reasoning was based upon cause and effect. Causal relations help us to know things beyond our page 2 immediate vicinity. All of our knowledge is based on experience. Therefore, we need experience to come to causal relationships of the world and experience constant conjunction. Hume stated that he shall venture to affirm, as a general proposition which admits no exception, that the knowledge of this relation is not in any instance, attained by reasonings ? a priori, but arises entirely from experience. (42) Unfortunately, our experience of constant conjunction only tells us about the past. Rationally, that is all it tells us. We can expect the effect to follow the cause, but it is not a sufficient basis to assume the effect will come from the cause in the future. These things are contingent- they could be different. The connection between these two propositions is not intuitive? it is always inferred. (480) Hume asserted that the future will resemble the past. This is the assumption underlying all our ideas of causality. If the future does not resemble the past, then all our reason based on cause and effect will crumble. When Hume proposed questions such as Is there any more intelligible proposition then to affirm that all trees will flourish in December and January, and will decay in May and June? (49), Hume demonstrates that it is not a relation of ideas that future will resemble the past; it is possible that the course of nature will change. Therefore, what happens in the future is neither a relation of ideas, nor a matter of fact. It is impossible, therefore, that any arguments from experience can prove this resemblance of past to future, since all these arguments are founded on the supposition of that resemblance. (51) Now Hume proposed that all inferences come from custom, not reasoning. Through custom or habits, we have become accustomed to expect an effect to follow a page 3 cause. This is not a rational argument. This argument centers on the theory of constant conjunction, which does not fall under either fork of reason. All inferences from experience, therefore, are effects of custom, not reasoning. (57) Hume analyzed the idea of causality by emphasizing the three demands that can be verified through observation. First he argued the aspect of constant conjunction. In this aspect, the cause and effect must be spatially and constantly existent. Secondly, he asserted that it must have temporal priority, in that, the cause had to precede the effect. Lastly, the event must have a necessary connection- we must develop an understanding of why a cause produces a certain effect. Humes critique of causation is that we cannot see it, we must infer it. For example, two billiard balls, one moving toward the next demonstrate temporal priority because one ball is moving first. Secondly, constant conjunction occurs because the balls exist together spatially and constantly. But, there is no necessary reason why this happens. Hume asserted that we can imagine a world in which the effect would be different. He then concluded that we cant get an impression of a necessary connection, we can only experience constant conjunction and temporal priority. Experience only teaches us how one event constantly follows another, without instructing us in the secret connection which binds them together. (77) We therefore conclude that reason is a limited faculty and that we have no reason to trust our common methods of argument or to think that our usual analogies and probabilities have any authority. (83) In conclusion, Hume asserted that since we do not have any impression of necessary connections, it is our expectation that believes the effect will follow the cause. page 4 The appearance of a cause always conveys the mind, by a customary transition, to the idea of the effect. (87) Since we are trained to expect the impression of necessary connection, the idea of it comes from our minds. Therefore, our belief in necessary connections of the universe is based on a rational facts. Immanuel Kant, a philosopher after Hume, sets out to reform metaphysics. Kant believed that if Hume was right, metaphysics would be impossible. But, Kant was unwilling to surrender to Humes skeptical argument, so Kant sets out to do a critique in order to explore the possibilities and reform metaphysics. Kant begins his critique searching for ? a priori knowledge within philosophy. Kant began to search for the ? a priori principles that were rationally deductible in order to explain why we perceive the things we cannot perceive. Kant believed that the only way that we could get to things necessary and universal was through ? a priori. Kant found that the concept of the connection of cause and effect was by no means the only concept by which the understanding thinks the connection of things ? a priori, but rather that metaphysics consists altogether of such concepts. (8) Kant began to examine pure ? a priori reason by establishing his critique. He stated that there are boundaries and contents. He set out to find what is inside the limitations and what is outside. Kant examined the three bodies of knowledge: math, physical science and metaphysics. Kant said that science must have necessity and universality. This places math and science within reason. Kant first divided judgement into two kinds of knowledge- analytic and synthetic. In the Prolegomena, Kant criticized Hume for having regarded mathematical judgements as analytic. Had he realized that page 5 they were synthetic, Hume would have been able to conclude that some synthetic judgements can be made ? a prior. Kant concluded that math and science fell under ? a priori synthetic judgements. This gives us universality, but it also tells us something. For Kant, knowledge must be necessary and universal qualities must come from ? a priori synthetic judgements. They have to tell us something we dont know, something completely independent of experience. This idea of Kants, completely contradicts Hume. Hume had asserted that anything based on empirical facts had no necessity, and therefore was contingent. Hume also stated that empirical facts couldnt give us universality either, because we cant know future will resemble the past. Kant stated that all Humes beliefs centered upon the fact that nothing but experience could furnish us with such connections. (24) For Hume, all science was empirical, and we could only know what happened so far. In contrast, for Kant, he said that scientific laws claim necessity and universality. It is only from ? a priori that we get universality and necessity. Kant then continued his critique to decipher if metaphysics is possible. Kant separated the faculties of the mind and the way it thinks into three distinctive categories. First, he stated that math was exhibited through intuition. The forms of intuition were ? a priori and had two capacities. First, intuition gave us space and time through pure intuition, and sensory data through empirical intuition. Then, Kant set up a metaphysical distinction between numena and phenomena. Numena represents the things in themselves, while phenomena represents the things for us. In this dichotomy we have no page 6 access to numena. The only way we can get to things outside us is through intuition, but intuition has these forms. This shows our limitations. Mathematics is not applicable to numena. We can have mathematical knowledge of phenomena. From this we can infer we have inter-subjective knowledge. Kant has given us universal and necessary knowledge in the phenomenal realm. Kant points out that the error may arise owing to an illusion, in which [he proclaim] to be universally valid what is merely a subjective condition of the intuition of thing and certain only of all objects of senses, namely for all possible experience. (39) Kant has just suggested that the error and base for all metaphysics is not distinguishing between phenomena and numena. Finally, Kant explained that everything is a distinction of phenomena and numena. We receive necessity and universality through this distinction and also from the projection that phenomena comes from certain ? a priori aspects. Therefore, the future will resemble the past, because we make it resemble the past. Kant used understanding, the second faculty of the mind to explain causality. As the understanding stands in need of categories for experience, reason contains in itself the source of ideas. (76) The function of understanding is thinking, and thinking must use concepts to be an objective thought. The presence of this objective thought verifies its actuality. Therefore, causality, for Kant, was the way in which mind puts together experiences to understand them. Kant found many problems within Humes account. Through his endeavors to prove that metaphysics is possible, and his analyzing of causality, Kant solved the problems he saw within Humes account. Specifically, in the Prolegomena, Kant stated page 7 that Hume justly maintains that we cannot comprehend by reason the possibility of causality. (57) Kant also attacked Humes ideas by describing Humes treatment of the concept of causality to be a bastard of the imagination, impregnated by experience. (5) Kant succeeded in re- establishing the objectivity of causality, a task that Hume had rejected as impossible.

Market Development Strategy Implementation For MS

Market Development Strategy Implementation For MS Marks Spencer is the UKs top retailer and is listed in the FTSE 100 of London Stock Exchange. The company has expanded its business in many different global markets. The organization has its products and services in the food, clothing, hosing, and financial service businesses. The assignment is based on the business strategies used by the firm to grow its business in the current global and domestic market. The assignment is based on how the author analyzes individual product line (Strategic Business Units) and their overall business by using business tools like Stakeholder Analysis, Porters 5 Forces Analysis, Value Chain Analysis, BCG Matrix and Ansoff Matrix. After collecting the necessary date from the respective business tools the date is processed and used to draw new Business Strategies for MSs businesses. Once the business strategies are drawn then the author can make plans on how to apply them in MSs businesses. The new business strategies will help MS to improve their busine ss processes and help them to expand their businesses in new markets. Marks Spencers has many strategic intends to achieve its Vision. They are the number one retailers in UK so the management has adopted new milestones on how to conduct business by causing less damage to the environment. They have started their project Plan A in which the firm will try to minimize the damage to the environment as less as possible by their business processes. One of the most important milestones is to maintain existing customers and gain new customers for their products, for which they have special offers and schemes in form of membership cards, free shipping charges in domestic market and discounts during special occasions for their loyal and new customers. They have started conducting their business online with help of new ICT systems which has helped them increase their sales and serve their customers more effectively and efficiently. They also have many quality controls and strategies to improve their business processes and maintain their position in domestic and international markets. Marks Spencer has six main objectives which are Profit Maximization, Increase Sales, Market Leadership, Offering High Quality Services, Growth and Reward Shareholders. Profit Maximization is the most important objective of MS. The management has made plans to maximize their profits by increasing their revenues from all different business ventures and by cutting their cost by avoiding wastage of resources (raw material, labor, etc). Marks Spencers profit in last two years was in 2009 it was 506.8 Â £m and in 2010 it was 523.0 Â £m. Increasing Sales is also one of the most important business objective of MS. In order to increase sales they have expanded their business ventures globally by entering new markets and by upgrading their products with quality controls and tests they are able to satisfy their existing customers and attract new customers for their different business ventures. MS is able to increase its turnover from 8,164.3 Â £m in the year 2009 to 8,567.9 Â £m in the ye ar 2010. Market Leadership is one of the business objectives of MS, MS is the largest retailer in UK and so one of its business objectives is to maintain market leadership by constant reviewing of their previous performance and of their competitors. They have drawn plans on how to become the leaders of international markets by diversifying and improving their products according to the taste of the local customers. MS has made constant efforts to compete with the local competitors in international markets and their international turnover has increased from 897.8 Â £m in the year 2009 to 968.7 Â £m in the year 2010. High Quality Services is one the business objectives of MS, they have always maintained a high standards in quality of goods and services which has kept them on top of the UK retailers for many decades. The management is making new plans on how to evaluate and improve their services and goods to maintain their high standards to which other companies can compare and impro ve their performances. Growth is one the important business objectives of MS as the management understands the importance of growth that is if the firm doesnt grow it will not survive in todays competitive markets. Marks Spencer has made maximum expansions from the year 2001 after a new board was setup. MS has expanded its business by giving franchise to local people in different countries and has successfully expanded its business in more than 35 countries globally. Reward Shareholders is also an important business objective since its a listed public company in London Stock Exchange. It is in FTSE 100 list and like all the other companies MS has declare dividends every year based on their profits in order to keep a healthy relationship with their shareholders. The shareholders are the backbone as they have invested huge amount of liquid wealth through IPOs in MS to allow the firm to carry out its business with calculated risks. The Threat of Entry is one of the key areas in which the firm requires unique strategies on how to stop the new firms from entering their market segment. The firm either has slash down their prices to an extend that new firms cannot enter their market or have such a strong brand value that the customers stay loyal to their products. MS is able to maintain its brand loyalty and maintain itself as UKs number one retailer giant. MS has planned a long term strategy for growth which hinders new firms to enter in its market segment. The firm is thus successfully in this area of business. The Power of Buyers is the area of business that deals with how the firm satisfies its customers with products which are of better quality and are at lower price range. The customers have the bargaining power as there are large retail giants like Tesco, Sainsbury, Asda (Wal-Mart), etc to cater their needs. The quality and price range of MSs goods and services is still better than the rest retail giants so they are able to keep customers loyal to their products. The Power of Suppliers is the area in which the firm deals with its suppliers for its raw material. MS has supplies only from local suppliers and since they are few in number MS has less negotiation power. The suppliers of MS enjoy the power of controlling price of the raw materials. This is one area where the firm can really improve its business process by shifting their manufacturing units to places where the number of suppliers is more and they can have a better chance of bargaining with their suppliers. The Threat of Substitute is area of business that deals in planning on how to avoid customers from switching into new products. MSs management and RD department are responsible in upgrading their products so that the customers remain satisfied and not switch over to an alternative product made by its rivals. The RD department is so efficient in its work that not only they are able to satisfy their existing customers but als o attract new customers to their product line. Competitive Rivalry is the area of business in which the firm keeps a close check on its rival firms and plans on how to compete with them in a competitive market in a profitable manner. MS is able to maintain high standards of goods and services which allowed them to stay as the largest retail giant till date in UK. MS has used the BCG matrix from time to time and have used the data wisely. The matrix has helped them to penetrate in new and old markets with various new products and services. The products of MS are able to capture huge markets in high growing industries. MS has a diverse range of products and services so they have allocated their resources in the star products. They have opened many new outlets in prime areas for retail and helped their question mark products in becoming star products. MS has expanded their business globally so their star products are able to capture new markets easily. MS management has minimized their dog SBUs and has diversified those funds towards star products. This has helped the firm to be at the top of the retailers in UK and a major competitor in other international markets. Currently MS has only cash cow and star SBUs in market. The cash cows are not giving much return due to the recession and slow growth of global market but the star products are doing exceptional well because of their high reputation. The BCG matrix helps the firm understand their products life cycle and allocation of resources in the SBUs. BCG matrix has been one of the most important business tool for MS in analyzing their performance from time to time http://www.scribd.com/doc/24329524/Introduction 3.2 Ansoff Matrix Igor Ansoff had invented the Ansoff Matrix in 1941 and was first published in 1957 in Harvard business review. The Ansoff Matrix is a strategic marketing tool that links a firms marketing strategy with its general strategy and outlines the options open to the firm if they wish to grow, improve profitability and revenue. These options indicate to how to manage the development of the product range. It mainly presents four alternative growth strategies in a table (matrix) which are market penetration, market development, product development and diversification. Market Penetration is a growth strategy for existing products in existing market. The company tries to increase its market share by increasing the sale of its existing product in its current market by using new marketing strategies. Market Development is a growth strategy for developing new markets for existing products. The main objective is to find new markets domestic or international for the firms existing product. Product Development is a growth strategy for new product in existing markets. The firm has to develop new products and launch them in their current market to capture market share. Diversification is a growth strategy for new products for new markets. The firm has to launch new products for new markets in order to expand their business in different markets. This is one of the most important growth strategy as the company has to study the taste of new customers and design their products in order to capture market share of a new market. Marks Spencer uses Ansoff Matrix to analyze their overall business portfolio. Since MS is one of the largest retailers in global market they use all the four growth strategies of Ansoff Matrix in their business. Market Penetration is used by MS to attract customers and make them loyal to their brand by offering good quality and services. They have special offers and customer loyalty programs during special occasion which helps them to attract new customers. The firm has opened many outlets in their captured markets in order to increase sales of their existing products. Product Development is one of the main growth strategies used by MS, the firm develops it new products according to the change in fashion. This has helped the firm to grow rapidly over the years. Market Development is also a growth strategy practiced by MS as they are expanding their business globally. The firm has opened many new outlets in many other countries over the world. Their products have such high demand tha t they are able to expand their business in many countries. MS is a cash rich company therefore it can easily capture new emerging markets by opening new outlets at prime areas in different counties. Diversification as a growth strategy is also used by MS as they develop new products for new customers to cater their needs. The RD department of MS is highly efficient in developing new products for new targeted markets of the firm. MS when enters new market they modify or make their products according to the taste of their new customers. MS uses both Ansoff BCG Matrix to analyze their business processes and to draw up business strategies for growth in existing and new markets. The analyzed data is used effectively by the management and MS is growing its business over the years successfully. Develop evaluate possible alternative strategies for the organisation you have chosen. 4. Alternative Strategies Growth Growth strategies are adopted by companies when they try to win large market share, even at the expense of short-term earnings. The growth strategies can be classified into four types and they are market penetration, product development, diversification and market development. Marks Spencer also has to use alternative strategies to grow their business in this competitive world market. The management has to use all of their resources to plan new strategies on how to utilize their current products, current markets, new products and new markets, in order to ensure there is maximum business growth. 4.1 Alternative Strategies used by Marks Spencer Marks Spencer uses a mixture of many strategies to draw up plans for growth. MS having a diverse business can use many strategies to expand their business in domestic and in international markets. The strategies used are market development strategies, market penetration strategies, product development strategies, and diversification strategies. 4.1.1 Market Development Strategies Marks Spencers management can grow their business by using market development strategies in which they can expand their business in new countries. The products of MS are of high quality therefore their reputation can help the firm easily grow into new markets. The brand value of MS can even help the firm to venture into new market segment and attract new customers as the products are of good quality and are placed at competitive prices. The food, clothing and house ware businesses of MS can use this strategy to grow and reap huge benefits for the company. 4.1.2 Product Development Strategies MS uses Product Development Strategy for its house ware, food and clothing business. In food business MS has changed the packaging to cater the needs of customers who buy in bulk and in small quantity. In clothing line they introduce a new collection according to the change in fashion to attract customers to their clothing business. House ware being the largest business the firm is launching new products frequently to remain at the top of other retailer in UK. 4.1.3 Market Penetration Strategies MS uses Market Penetration strategies for all of existing businesses. This strategy has helped MS to remain at the top of all the retailers in UK. The clothing and food business use strategies like customer loyalty and value improvement strategies whereas the hose ware and financial service businesses use market share growth strategies to grow business. 4.1.4 Unrelated Related Diversification Strategies Relative diversification is the development of a new product line for the new market. Related diversification is of two types horizontal and vertical. Horizontal diversification is development of a product which is an alternative to your current product and Vertical diversification is when the company becomes its own supplier or distributor. Unrelated diversification is the development of a new product which has no relation to the market or the industry in which the firm conducts its current business. MS uses relative diversification strategies for its food and clothing business. For both businesses it uses horizontal diversification strategy by which it develops new food and clothing products as per the change in taste and trend of the people. Recently MS has started its business in Financial Service area this is a complete new business therefore the growth of these services are planned by unrelated diversification strategies. Therefore the firm has used many strategies to diversify and expand its business in order to sustain in the competitive market. The selection of strategies by the management has helped the firm to reap exceptional benefits and has helped the firm to maintain its position at the top of all the retailer giants in UK. The strategies used in global markets have also been successful and the growth rate of the firm is tremendous in foreign markets. The products and services are of high net worth therefore the firm can easily use the planned strategies to grow their business in local and international markets. Outline an implementation plan for the chosen strategies in question 4. 5. Growth Strategies Implementation for Marks Spencer Many of the plans for the strategic growth discussed before are already implemented by the firm. New plan for expansion in new markets (market development) is to be drawn and implemented to ensure strategic growth for clothing business. 5.1 Market Development Strategy Implementation for MS MS has to develop and implement strategic plans for capturing markets in different countries. MS has already expanded its business in many countries and their products are capturing huge market shares. Seeing tremendous international growth MS should capture new markets as their products are of good quality. The new markets will help the clothes business grow internationally and MS brand image will further appreciate. The steps for planning market development strategies are planning, organization structure, human resources, annual business plan, monitoring and control and linkage. Planning is the first step for developing a market developing strategies. The firm has to first decide which new market they should capture and what product line they should launch for their new market segment. A detailed research on the taste of their new customers needs to be conducted and then accordingly the firm needs to launch their existing or new product line. Organizational Structure needs to be decided by the firm before they layout their business foundation in the new market. Usually the firm gives franchise to the local people to open new store in new countries, this step helps in minimizing risk and the management is in the hands of the franchise holder. The firm still has control over the layout of the store and pricing of the products. Human Resources of every new store is taken care by the franchise holder but MS organizes workshops to train and help the workers to develop new skills. This helps MS to have employees which can cater the need of their customers effectiv ely. Annual Business Plan helps the firm to estimate or forecast their sales in the new market. The firm and the franchise holder have to allocate resources according to the annual business plan in order to ensure business growth. Monitoring Control is a crucial step in making the new business successful. MS has to monitor how the employees are trained to serve their new customers. The firm has to check if the products are properly displayed in their new stores. They have to carry out regular surveys to check the preference of the people and develop new products based on the analysis of the data collected. The firm has to give franchise to the people who will conduct business ethical or else their brand value will decline in that market segment. Linkage is when the firm keeps a close check on all the activities and makes sure that all the processes are conducted in the decided sequence regularly to ensure business growth. Linkage MS can use this growth strategy to develop a new market and by implementing this strategy it can grow its business in many part of the world. One of the business objective of MS is to grow therefore growing in international market is really profitable as MS has made constant efforts to compete with the local competitors in international markets and their international turnover has increased from 897.8 Â £m in the year 2009 to 968.7 Â £m in the year 2010. The international market of MS has shown a tremendous growth and so MS should make full use of this plan and grow its business in new markets. This plan also gives the firm the advantage of developing new products for their new market segments. The brand image has helped the firm to grow in many new markets therefore MS should utilize this growth strategy to develop new markets. Conclusion Quinn (1980, pg. 3) defines Business Strategy as the pattern that integrates an organizations major goal, policies and action sequences into a cohesive whole. A well formulated strategy helps to marshal and allocate an organizations resources into unique and viable posture based on its relative internal competencies and shortcomings, anticipated changes in the environment and contingent moves by intelligent opponents. The author has used many business measuring tools (BCG Matrix, Ansoff Matrix, Porters 5 Forces Analysis, Value Chain Analysis, Stake holder analysis, etc) appropriately to collect relevant data on each of the SBUs and on overall business. The data was processed and used to form new alternative growth strategies for MS. The growth strategy if used by the firm can help them expand their business and also to develop new product lines for new markets. Therefore the business strategies suggested by the author in the assignment are relevant for the firm if they want to grow their business in current global market and retain their position at the top of UKs retailer list. Reference List Books Referred Mooij, M, 2009. Global Marketing and Advertising, 3rd Edition. SAGE John, R, Gillies, G, 1996. Global Business Strategy. Cengage Learning EMEA. Johnson, 2008. Exploring Corporate Strategy. Pearson Education India. Johnson, G, Scholes, K, Whittington, R, 2006. Exploring Corporate Strategy, 7th Edition. Financial Times. Websites Referred History Introduction of MS taken (online), Available at: http://corporate.marksandspencer.com/aboutus/company_overview (Accessed 15th April, 2011) Mission Vision taken (online), Available at: http://www2.marksandspencer.com/thecompany/our_stores/world.shtml (Accessed 15th April, 2011) Definition of Strategic Intent taken (online), Available at: http://dilipnaidu.wordpress.com/2010/05/06/strategic-intent/ (Accessed 15th April, 2011) Objectives of MS taken (online), Available at: http://bizcovering.com/major-companies/a-case-study-on-marks-and-spencer/2/ (Accessed 15th April, 2011) MS 5 Years Records taken (online), Available at: http://corporate.marksandspencer.com/investors/fin_highlights/five_year_record (Accessed 16th April, 2011) Stakeholder Analysis taken (online), Available at: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/stakeholder.html (Accessed 16th April, 2011) Porters 5 Forces Analysis (online), Available at: http://www.1stessays.com/samples/businessanalysis.pdf (Accessed 16th April, 2011) BCGs Matrix taken (online), Available at: http://www.managementstudyguide.com/bcg-matrix.htm http://www.scribd.com/doc/24329524/Introduction (Accessed 17th April, 2011) Ansoff Matrix taken (online), Available at: http://www.ngfl-cymru.org.uk/ansoff_matrix-2.pdf http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/Ansoff-matrix.html (Accessed 17th April, 2011) Alternative Growth Strategies taken (online), Available at: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/growth-strategy.html http://paulcurtis.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/growthstrategymatrix.jpg?w=500h=446 (Accessed 17th April, 2011)

The Nile Egyptian Schools

The Nile Egyptian Schools I have accepted a new position in a new school. The school is new in everything; new school campus, new staff and team, new students, and last but not least a new system. The later is what concerns me; it also interests me and is what I find challenging. I believe it is a great idea and deeply hope it works. It is important to remember that starting an assessment of a program should not wait until the school starts. An evaluation plan should be part of the planning of the initiation of the school, and should be implemented when the teaching begins and even before once the students are accepted. And so, documentation starts from the beginning, and baseline data on students, teachers, and administration personnel can be collected before instruction begins (Fleischman Williams, 1996). The Nile Egyptian Schools Mission states that: NES will provide quality affordable education that is locally and internationally recognized and accredited. The Schools will be recognized for excellence in teaching and learning characterized by quality facilities, strong effective leadership, outstanding teachers and excellent community support. NES will prepare students for academic success and encourage them to be responsible and productive citizens with a strong Egyptian identity. The vision of the school: The Nile Egyptian Schools will provide Egypt with world class citizens who can serve globally as ambassadors of excellence and help position Egypt as a vibrant nation keen on achieving progress, prosperity and well-being for its citizens and the world community. The schools website also shows the aims and values of the school; The NES aim to meet International education standards in terms of recognized curricula, certified teachers, qualified administrative staff and school buildings constructed and equipped to contemporary international standards. These not-for-profit schools will provide high education at affordable fees in partnership with civil society. The curriculum has been designed to meet the needs of the individual learners in the twenty first century, whilst taking account of the aim and objectives of NES project and of Egyptian standards. The system is based on the principles of humanism, tolerance, diversity, democracy, and open-mindedness. The Nile schools are going to be twenty-nine schools; for now, only five will open. The plan is to open one school in every governorate; which would entail a great diversity in the students and in the cultures of each school. The students profiles are going to be extremely diverse, from Upper Egypt in Aswan to Alexandria and Port Said. As such the students will have the same curriculum, same facilities but different teachers and different backgrounds. My students at El-Obour branch will be assessed and compared to other students in the other schools. I find this challenging and needs to be put in consideration when I am evaluating the course and its outcomes. Reflecting on the mission and vision of the schools, and on my new role as the head of the science department in a new school it came to mind that I would need different tools to help me evaluate the teachers in the department, their teaching methods, their ability to interact and handle the students. As such is the case I am attempting to research and probably find or design a tool that would help me achieve my goal. I chose to adopt this framework and tried to adapt it to my needs. This framework, presented here includes both the process and outcome side. It also, focuses on the students and their individuality. Accordingly, I would be able to determine the effectiveness of the science program execution, also understand how the curriculum and teaching process produced this result and how the program could be upgraded to produce a better result more efficiently. To reach the goal of assessing the program and evaluating the outcome, there are three components that should be addressed. Data should be collected and used from these perspectives.  · Students;  · Instruction; and  · Outcomes. Each one is described below. Students This part of the evaluation tool should focus on the students information including, for example, grade level, age, the culture where they are in is it urban or rural (according to the location of the school), socio-economic background (e.g. parents education), skills, grades and test scores from previous schools and all through the year. This data has a great descriptive value; it is also useful for comparisons between other students in the same school or in the other school branches. All the Nile Egyptian schools are providing the same services to all students, but students backgrounds and cultures are going to differ according to the school location. For this I would use these two sheets one general and one specific for each student. This data could be collected once at the beginning of the year and updated if needed. It could be distributed to the parents and filled to save time. I would need this information when reviewing the collective data; it will be also useful when comparing with other schools. The general sheet: Questions How many students are in the same grade in my school (El-Obour)? Number of students taking science in each grade. How many students are in the same grade in all NESs? Number of students taking science in each grade. How many students are in the class to be observed class? Number of students in class. What is the students level in language and science? Scores on achievement tests from previous schools. What is the students basic scientific knowledge before? Scores on a pre-test related to curriculum being evaluated; i.e. an MCQ test to be given on the first or second class session. Second sheet (for individual students): Name Grade Age/ Gender Grade from previous school Comments Instruction (teaching and teaching materials) I think this part is the very essence of my job. I will eventually be leading a team of science teachers asked to deliver the curriculum by the means and the facilities available. According to the school profile, state of the art facilities that are highly technological and laboratory equipment would be available. Through monitoring and observing using an assessment tool I would be able to evaluate the process by which the outcomes or results were achieved and by what is actually taking place in the classroom, rather than what was planned to happen. This would allow us to work on the weaknesses and share the strengths with the other branches. As such I believe my role as a monitor of the science program, whether in the classroom, the laboratory or elsewhere, like field trips inside and outside the school is my number one task. To observe how the program is implemented, and develop teacher training activities that would help them. I would have to include instructional measurable objectives, hours of teaching, teacher characteristic, experience, and innovation in my assessment tool. Being the instructional leader would entail not only observations and evaluations but also building rapport with the teachers and meeting with them before and after class observations, and on regular basis to share ideas and experiences. I would like it too, if the teachers on my team would attend some of my classes; it is good for my professional development, it would also enhance the sense of team collegiality. Pre-observation Conference Date: Teachers Name:______________________ What and when would you like to be observed? (maybe set a time frame for my visit; like in the next week) How do you feel about the lesson? Walk me through your lesson plan. Why did you choose this lesson? What do you want the students to learn by the end of the lesson? How will you check if they got it? What concerns you the most about this lesson? Take me through your lesson plan What is the teaching strategy you want to be observed in this lesson? Classroom management, positive support, instructional monitoring, questioning, other instructional strategies Why did you choose this behavior? Observation instruments to be with me in the lesson while observation: Lesson plan Seating chart and where I would sit Notebook Other: Special conditions/students Reflect on Learning outcome/ objectives met Classroom management Teaching behavior focus Set the date for the post-conference meeting time and place: Any questions? (This sheet is adapted from M. MacCormick 2006) Post-Conference Date: Teachers Name:_____________________ How do you feel about the lesson? My feelings Were the learning objectives achieved?) Teachers comment My comment Discuss changes or suggestions if the lesson would be done again or differently, what would be needed? Classroom Management Teachers comment My comment Suggestions for next classes Teaching Behavior Focus Teachers comment My comment Discuss changes Future training Plan The teachers next teaching behavior focus Develop a training plan with the teacher Summary Summarize and record what was discussed Try to put the conclusions in points I have to remember to give encouraging statement Questions? Complete record of the observation cycle summary Give an estimated time for the next class visit (This sheet is adapted from M. MacCormick 2006) I would like also to use this next tool to have background information of the classes and teachers. This tool also helps me to be clear and set or request from the top management the appropriate training and development programs. Questions Variables 1. What are the measurable objectives? Are these objectives stated clearly? Unit or chapter goals and lesson objectives 2. What are the total hours of teaching per week? Hours/ week 3. What is the teacher/student ratio? Number of students/ class 4. What are the teachers qualifications and experience)? Teachers previous experience 5. What is the type of training available to teachers? Are they fitting and enough? Training and development activities 6. What are the teachers tools, materials and instruments available? Are they suitable and used? Materials and equipment available. (Adapted from Hopstock, Young, and Zehler, 1993 cited in Davis (Gene), 2005) Outcomes This is the last part of what I feel is an effective evaluation; It deals with what to do next. The results of the Cambridge exams are going to be a very important part of the evaluation of the outcome. The top management will look at these results as the sole reflection on the educational process. On the other hand I would like to put into consideration the project work of the students and their portfolios. By this we can evaluate the outcome using both authentic and traditional assessment tools. Assessment is a way we can document our progress. A systematic, ongoing cycle of setting goals or objectives, measuring the achievement of those goals, and using these results to make knowledgeable decisions vital for the departments continuous improvement (Davis (Gene), 2005). Good assessment can enhance the quality of education by providing the necessary evidence to guide us to make the best decisions we can make in many areas: including changes in curriculum, classroom teaching methodology, support individual students, and improvement of the school culture. In other words, we need to know where were standing before we can go any further. In addition to the benefits I will get in my department and school, we, the NESs could use this assessment to improve as a new educational system. With these three key purposes of assessment in mind: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To improve Evaluation should be formative. Assessment provides feedback to help form better programs and services. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To inform Assessment should show a clear image of what is really happening in a classroom or laboratory and can inform others of the effort that is done there. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To demonstrate A good assessment process can answer three related questions: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ What are we trying to do? à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ How well are we doing it? à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ How are we using what we discover to improve what we will do in the future? The following diagram illustrates this cycle of goal setting tied to evaluations (Davis (Gene), 2005). Analysis of data and presenting it for further use: After collecting the data, starts the next step in the process of evaluation, data analysis and producing a report. This is important for the documentation and writing recommendations to be checked in the next cycle. The evaluation report will include: A description of the achievements of the program, stating and highlighting those instructional methods that were the most effective; A description instructional elements that were unproductive, inefficient and even problematic it will also state areas that need improvement in the future; and A description of the outcomes and the effect of the material taught and how it was delivered on the students as shown by their test scores as well as their portfolios. Thorough observation with accurate documentation will make the data useful for and allow us to make well informed decisions to improve the curriculum and the way it is delivered. In other words, the evaluation report is a tool supporting decision making, program improvement, accountability, and quality control (Davis (Gene), 2005).

Pollution Essay: Silent Spring, How Rachel Carson Changed the World :: Environment Environmental Preservation

Silent Spring - How Rachel Carson Changed the World On September 27, 1962 Rachel Carson released her sixth book, Silent Spring. On publication day, the advance sales of Silent Spring totaled 40,000 copies and another 150 copies were sent to the Book of the Month Club (Frontline: Fooling With Nature, 1998). Silent Spring remained on the bestseller list for almost a year. The world was beginning to take notice. Countless experts and organizations have proclaimed Rachel Carsonà ¢s book the starting point of the environmental movement. Carson described numerous case studies where the use of hazardous pesticides, insecticides, and other chemicals led to environmental problems all over the world. Whether directly or indirectly, everything in the environment is connected and affected by each other. Silent Spring describes, in depth, the harmful effects that chemical control has placed on all components of the environment. They include: air, water, land, wildlife, plant life, and humans. I will discuss each of these categories as examined in Silent Spring along with my personal analysis. First I will discuss the damage from chemicals released in the air. Aerial spraying of pesticides, mostly DDT, began on a small scale over farms and forests. With the development of new insecticides and the availability of planes from the war, the sky almost literally turned into a shower of toxic chemicals. The justification behind the massive sprayings of the 1950à ¢s was to exterminate exotic species like the fire ant, and the gypsy moth. The spraying was extremely careless, and resulted in heavily populated towns and cities repeatedly being sprayed with DDT (Carson, 1962). Unfortunately, people and wildlife sprayed with DDT along with other chemicals had no warnings and no way to protect themselves. The government, without consent of those affected, risked the health of those exposed to the pesticides and the quality of the environment. Nearly everyone was exposed to the risks, in a direct or indirect way, from the extensive aerial spraying. As described in the book, the gypsy moth is not a native of the United States. It had persisted in the U.S. for a great number of years without any need for extensive control measures. Carson states, à £Yet drastic action was suddenly taken against them under the end-justifies-the-means philosophyà ¤ (Carson, 1962, p.156). Therefore, unnecessary health risks and damage to the environment were considered acceptable in order to eliminate the gypsy moth, which has repeatedly been unsuccessful. One reason the gypsy moth still thrives is because, like many insects, they have developed resistance to the chemicals targeted against them.

Discrimination is Everywhere! Essay -- Prejudice Stereotype

Discrimination—Everywhere! Discrimination can be confused with other terms such as prejudice and stereotype. It is important to differentiate between the three terms so that we better understand what we deal with in society. Stereotypes are images held in our minds in regards to certain racial or cultural groups, without consideration of whether the images held are true or false. Stemming from stereotypes is prejudice. The prejudicial attitude occurs when we prejudge a person, good or bad, on the basis that the stereotypes associated with the person/group being prejudged are true. Discrimination is the combination of the terms mentioned above, but involves actually acting out with unfair treatment, directing the action towards the person/group. Prejudice and discrimination do not just occur racially, but it is found among gender, religion, culture, and geographical background. Remember that prejudice is a result of attitude and discrimination is a result of action. At one point in our lives, we have all experienced a type of discrimination. It happens to everyone, even if they happen to be the â€Å"dominating† group of their society. By dominating, I am referring to the stereotype that white, rich men dominate the society. Is it false, or true? I, myself, have experienced discrimination. One example is the wonderful experience of buying a car. It is tough enough to get up the courage to deal with the salesmen at the dealership, but even harder when you are a young female. Mo...

Care of Suicidal Patient in Ed

This article Is about caring for pediatric patients who are suicidal. I believe In coincided with what we have recently been learning about during our clinical experience. I was also Interested in this article because I had worked In pediatrics for six years prior to working in a rehab/nursing home setting. After reading this article, I learned ways to carefully screen the pediatric patient, how to do an assessment and how some families act and what measures of support they need during their families time of crisis.This oracle gave a case study of a boy that was brought Into the emergency apartment with his mother and grandfather. When the nurse met him in the reception area he was sitting In a chair with his legs pulled up to his chest and his shoe laces were untied. He avoided eye contact during their meeting. The mother in the case study was visibly upset.This boy was brought to the emergency department because this young boy was found in the kitchen holding a butcher knife to his neck, when his mother walked In and got the young boy to give her the knife, Prior to this day there were many changes in the young boys life, he recently started a new school and he was diagnosed with Espalier's syndrome. This boy also had trouble making friends in his school and he was being bullied. Other children at school were threatening this boy. This story made me think of all the children that are In POEMS and how he seemed to have a lot of things In common with them. They were all in similar situations.The nurse after obtaining this history from his mother and asking about any medications, vaccinations, allergies, possible exposures to communicable diseases also needed to obtain his vital signs and head to toe assessment The young boy let the nurse do his height and weight but as soon as the nurse put the stethoscope to he boys chest he felt his heart pounding and he thought It meant he was going to die. The boy had anxiety during the assessment so the nurse stopped the a ssessment and showed what she needed to do on his mother and after the boy relaxed a little bit, he allowed the nurse to finish the assessment on him.The nurse got a one on one to stay with this patient because he was at risk for doing harm to himself. The nurse also had to obtain an EGG and urine drug screen. In our clinical setting, I have seen the urine drug screen used on every patient but not the EGG. According to this article, It Is Important to obtain a baseline EGG because many psychophysiology agents can affect the conduction system of the heart. After the boy was medically cleared, he was eligible to meet with the psychiatrist and social worker. He had to wait for the psychiatrist and he became agitated and started kicking the wall.Security had to be called Into the room and the safety door was lowered. The nurse removed their name badge and their bandage scissors as they were both safety hazards. The nurse re-entered the room keeping their pathway to the door unobstructed . All dangerous items were removed from the room. The nurse used many different techniques to deescalate the situation and used the mother to get Information of things that have worked In the past. When the boy was ready to discharge, the nurse gave them education on a safety plan the called tort keeping knives out to the boys reach and tallow up tort outpatient care.No medications were given to calm him down. The suicide rate in the entire world has increased over the past few decades with a greater number of boys attempting suicide then girls. In 2010, there was a study hat found 14% of children ages 11-20 reported having suicidal thoughts within the previous month. According to this article, Native American males have the highest suicide rate in the United States for children over 10, and non-Hispanic black females have the lowest rate.Some psychosocial risk factors include, the presence of an underlying psychiatric condition, a history of prior suicide attempts, a history of phy sical or sexual abuse, and a lack of mental health treatment. Poor coping skills have been identified as a predictive of a suicide attempt in both sexes. Environmental and social risk factors include owning a gun in the household, being homeless or living in a corrections facility or group home, poor parent-child communication, social isolation, bullying and difficulties at school.Many emergency rooms are using the five level triage classification systems called Emergency Severity Index Triage Algorithm. This takes into account not only the acuity of the patient but also the number of resources that will be required during the evaluation. A level 1 patient would require immediate life-saving intervention. A level 2 patient would be considered in the â€Å"danger zone,† and needs emergent retirement. Level 3 patients need more the 1 resource, level 4 patients require 1 resource and level 5 patients require none.At the Children's Hospital Boston, the use a screening tool that c onsists of 4 questions, â€Å"Are you here because you tried to hurt yourself? † â€Å"In the past week, have you been having thoughts about killing yourself? † â€Å"Have you ever tried to hurt yourself in the past other than this time? † â€Å"Has something very stressful happened to you in the past few weeks? † If the patient answers yes to one or more of these questions they become characterized as SSI bevel 2, and the nurse would explain the policy on physical and chemical restraints which are only used as a last resort.Some strategies that nurse's use to promote successful interactions with the patient and their family members include active listening, close observation of behavior, attending to non-verbal body language, asking open-ended questions, conveying a non-judgmental attitude, clarifying information, and providing support. The patient's safety is always the greatest concern as well as the staffs safety. Family education is very important wh en working with suicidal patients, because heir care is often managed at home.It is important for them to follow up with outpatient care, outpatient psychiatric support, and a home safety plan. Also, the nurse needs to let the family know if when they will need to seek emergency care again. This article has helped me gain a better understanding of the psychiatric patient, no matter the age, even though it focused on pediatrics. All these techniques can be used when dealing with suicidal patients. Our role as nurse's plays an important role in managing our patient's care while they are in our care and promoting their health y educating our patients and their families.

Discuss The Dramatic Presentation of Justice and Morality Essay

The crucible written by Arthur Miller, in 1953 is set in the heart of puritan 16th century America. The main plot is about the witch hunts during that period and the lives that were affected by it. Although the play is about the witch hunts in Salem in the 16th century, the sub plot is really referring to the injustice that Miller himself was experiencing when he wrote it. In the play, it was not only acceptable practice in Salem to accuse people of witchery (usually women) but it was also acceptable to render them completely unable to defend themselves from such accusations. The society’s Puritanism, hysteria and conflicting views on morality and all that is just accounted for the horrendous tragedies to follow. Justice and morality are the main themes introduced throughout the play – justice, meaning the administration of law according to prescribed and accepted principles and morality, meaning the degree to which something is morally acceptable. Many issues associated with justice and morality such as the difficulties and dangers of conforming to strict principles including the consequences of the misuse of justice are also highlighted in the play. This essay will discuss those themes and how the audience is presented with them dramatically. ‘The Crucible’ meaning something in which substances are melted at high temperatures could be referring to a cauldron used by witches or an explosive situation. ‘The Crucible’ also means a severe test or trial which could be referring to the difficult decisions the characters had to make. The ambiguity of the title makes it difficult for the audience to fully understand and predict the nature and mood of the play outrightly. Throughout the play the audience is subtly presented with particular emotive issues. Miller used the literary device of an allegory to be able to depict them to maximum effect. He used lighting to convey emotions and tones, the same way he would a character. For example the footnotes of act one mention a candle in the room and sunrays beaming through the window giving the room â€Å"an air of clean spareness†. This could be interpreted as reflecting the way in which the puritans perceived themselves, free from corruption or impurities. Throughout the play, light was used to symbolize scenes depicting kindness, softer, more sincere emotions or highlight good characters in the play. But as the plot thickens, Miller uses less light which draws the audience towards the climax of the play. Dark lighting generally denotes bad atmosphere, for example the courtroom in Act Three is described as a â€Å"solemn, forbidding place† even though light shone through the back window. Again, at the very end of Act Four, when John Proctor is finally led away, Reverend Hale begins to pray and a light shines on his face. Again light is used to show raw emotions, and to portray both Proctor and Hale as good pious people. The language used throughout the play is archaic and biblical. Miller used biblical references throughout the play to help further illustrate and highlight the extent of Puritanism in Salem and how religion was the focal point of life in Salem. For example when Procter is pleading with Reverend Hale, he refers to him as ‘Pontious Pilate’ a roman official who found Jesus neither innocent nor guilty and washed his hands of the affair. However, it is more likely that Procter’s reference to the Bible was a subtle way of proving himself and his wife to be practicing Christians. Arthur Miller’s development of Abigail William’s character in ‘The Crucible’ greatly affects the plot of the play. Her snobbishness and perceived superiority made many people believe in her lies. Her superiority complex stems from the fact that she was an unmarried orphan, this placed her at the bottom of the social hierarchy in Salem. Her resentment of those that betrayed her influenced many of her decisions. From the very beginning of the play, it is clear to all that Abigail was a person who craved control, albeit subtly at times. Miller used the literary device of juxtaposition to show this to the audience. Juxtaposition is when two or more things are placed next to each other in order to create contrast and allow further analysis. In Act One, scene one where Reverend Parris is praying over Betty, Abigail appears to be an innocent, concerned niece â€Å"I will never hurt Betty, i love her dearly†. But as we see in the next scene, she threatens her own friends into silence. â€Å"Let either of you breathe a word, or the edge of a word about the other things, and i will come to you in the black of some terrible night and i will bring some pointy reckoning that will shudder you. And you know i can do it. † The â€Å"evil† that made her capable of drinking chicken’s blood made the girls fear her, so much so that when Procter asked Mary (his house helper) to tell the courts about Abigail she replied â€Å"she’ll kill me for saying that†. Juxtaposition was also used to show the different levels of morality between the characters. Throughout all the chaos of trying to find who is moral and who isn’t, the audience is fully aware that Abigail was behind it all and she is the person lacking in morals. This made it possible for the audience to make the contrast between her and the other members of the community. Again Abigail’s acted superiority complex revealed itself when Reverend Parris asked her why no-one in the village had rehired her, she replied by saying how they wanted to enslave her and how she would not â€Å"blacken her face for any of them†. This further illustrates her feelings towards the black slaves in the community. It was almost as if she was saying she would rather be without a job than lower herself to their level. It was this reasoning that made it so easy for her to use Tituba (Parris’ slave) as a scapegoat to take all the blame for the witchery. It was also easy for the rest of the villagers to believe Abigail’s accusations because they too thought themselves better than Tituba. An example of this is in Act One where Tituba takes a step backwards before attempting to talk to the reverend but he scrambles to his feet and quickly dismisses her.